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Aluminium is a silvery-white, lightweight metal. It is soft and malleable. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust but is rarely found uncombined in nature. It is usually found in minerals such as bauxite and cryolite. Aluminium has no known biological role. Aluminium is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts. This is because of its particular properties. It has low density, is non-toxic, has a high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion resistance and can be easily cast, machined and formed. It is also non-magnetic and non-sparking and a good electrical conductor. Aluminium is used to create white and silvery fireworks.

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Argon is a colourless, odourless gas that is totally inert to other substances. Argon makes up 0.94% of the Earth’s atmosphere and is the third most abundant atmospheric gas. Levels have gradually increased since the Earth was formed because radioactive potassium-40 turns into argon as it decays. Argon is obtained commercially by the distillation of liquid air. It has no known biological role. Argon is often used when an inert atmosphere is needed. It is used in this way for the production of titanium and other reactive elements. It is also used by welders to protect the weld area and in incandescent light bulbs to stop oxygen from corroding the filament. Argon is used in fluorescent tubes and low-energy light bulbs. Double-glazed windows use argon to fill the space between the panes. The tyres of luxury cars can contain argon to protect the rubber and reduce road noise. Argon gas produces a purple/violet colour when excited by electricity.

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Cobalt is a lustrous, silvery-blue metal. It is magnetic. Cobalt is found in the minerals cobaltite, skutterudite and erythrite. Important ore deposits are found in Australia, DR Congo, Canada, Zambia and Brazil. Most cobalt is formed as a by-product of nickel refining. Cobalt is an essential trace element and forms part of the active site of vitamin B12. Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope. It is an important source of gamma-rays. It is widely used in cancer treatment, as a tracer and for radiotherapy. Cobalt can be magnetised and is used to make magnets. It is alloyed with aluminium and nickel to make particularly powerful magnets. Other alloys of cobalt are used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators, where high-temperature strength is important. Cobalt metal is sometimes used in electroplating because of its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance to corrosion. Cobalt salts have been used for centuries to produce brilliant blue colours in paint, porcelain, glass, pottery and enamels. The tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen, who ruled from 1361-1352 BC, contained a small glass object coloured deep blue with cobalt.

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Copper is a pinkish-gold metal that is easily worked and drawn into wires. It is used in electrical equipment because it conducts both heat and electricity very well and is also used in construction, industrial machinery and agriculture. Copper is an essential element. An adult human needs around 1.2 milligrams of copper a day, to help enzymes transfer energy in cells. Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked by people. The discovery that it could be hardened with a little tin to form the alloy bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age.

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Strontium is a soft, silvery metal that burns in air and reacts with water. Strontium is found mainly in the minerals celestite and strontianite. China is now the leading producer of strontium. Strontium is incorporated into the shells of some deep-sea creatures and is essential to some stony corals. It has no biological role in humans and is non-toxic. Strontium is best known for the brilliant reds its salts give to fireworks and flares. It is also used in producing ferrite magnets and refining zinc. Modern ‘glow-in-the-dark’ paints and plastics contain strontium aluminate. They absorb light during the day and release it slowly for hours afterwards. Strontium chloride hexahydrate is an ingredient in toothpaste for sensitive teeth. Strontium-90, a radioactive isotope, is a by-product of nuclear reactors and present in nuclear fallout. It has a half-life of 28 years. It is absorbed by bone tissue instead of calcium and can destroy bone marrow and cause cancer. However, it is also useful as one of the best high-energy beta-emitters known. It can be used to generate electricity for space vehicles, remote weather stations and navigation buoys. It can also be used for thickness gauges and to remove static charges from machinery handling paper or plastic.

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Barium is a soft, silvery metal that rapidly tarnishes in air and reacts with water. Barium occurs only in combination with other elements. and can be prepared by electrolysis of molten barium chloride, or by heating barium oxide with aluminium powder. It is not an extensively used element but it is used in drilling fluids for oil and gas wells. It is also used in paint and in bricks, tiles, rubber and glassmaking. Barium nitrate gives fireworks a green colour.

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Hafnium is a shiny, silvery metal that resists corrosion and can be drawn into wires. Hafnium has no known biological role and it has low toxicity. Hafnium is a good absorber of neutrons and is used to make control rods, such as those found in nuclear submarines. It also has a very high melting point and is used in plasma welding torches. Hafnium oxide is used as an electrical insulator in microchips, while hafnium catalysts have been used in polymerisation reactions.

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Tungsten is a shiny, silvery-white metal. It has the highest melting point of any metal and was used extensively for the filaments of old-style incandescent light bulbs. Tungsten and its alloys are used in many high-temperature applications, such as arc-welding electrodes and heating elements in high-temperature furnaces. Tungsten carbide is immensely hard and is very important to the metal-working, mining and petroleum industries. Tungsten’s symbol, W, comes from the element’s other name – wolfram. This is because Tungsten was first discovered in the mineral wolframite.

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Rhenium is a silvery metal with a very high melting point. It is among the rarest metals on Earth. It does not occur uncombined in nature or as a compound in a mineable mineral species. Rhenium is used as an additive to tungsten- and molybdenum-based alloys to give useful properties. These alloys are used for oven filaments and x-ray machines. It is also used as an electrical contact material as it resists wear and withstands arc corrosion. Rhenium was discovered in 1925 by renowned German scientist, Ida Noddack, and her husband Walter Noddack. It is one of the few elements in the table discovered by a woman.

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Thallium is a soft, silvery-white metal that tarnishes easily. It is found in several ores. One of these is pyrites, which is used to produce sulfuric acid. Thallium is also present in manganese nodules found on the ocean floor. Thallium has no known biological role. It is very toxic and so its use is limited. Most thallium is used by the electronics industry in photoelectric cells. Thallium oxide is used to produce special glass with a high index of refraction, and also low melting glass that becomes fluid at about 125K. An alloy of mercury containing 8% thallium has a melting point 20°C lower than mercury alone. This can be used in low-temperature thermometers and switches.

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Astatine is a dangerously radioactive element. Astatine can be obtained in a variety of ways, but not in weighable amounts. Astatine-211 is made in nuclear reactors by the neutron bombardment of bismuth-200. There are currently no uses for astatine outside of research. The half-life of the most stable isotope is only 8 hours, and only tiny amounts have ever been produced. A mass spectrometer has been used to confirm that astatine behaves chemically like other halogens, particularly iodine. Astatine has no known biological role. It is toxic due to its radioactivity.

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Rutherfordium is a radioactive metal that does not occur naturally. Relatively few atoms have ever been made. Rutherfordium has no known biological role. It is a transuranium element and is created by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 nuclei. At present, it is only used in research. In 1964, a team led by Georgy Flerov at the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, bombarded plutonium with neon and produced element 104, isotope 259. They confirmed their findings in 1966. IUPAC decided element 104 would be called rutherfordium in honour of New Zealand Chemist, Ernest Rutherford, one of the first to explain the structure of atoms. 

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Dubnium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. Dubnium has no known biological role. It does not occur naturally. It is a transuranium element created by bombarding californium-249 with nitrogen-15 nuclei. At present, it is only used in research. In 1968, a team led by Georgy Flerov at the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) bombarded americium with neon and made an isotope of element 105. In 1970, a team led by Albert Ghiorso at the American Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) bombarded californium with neon and obtained isotope 261. They disputed the claim of the JINR people. The two groups gave it different names. Eventually, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided it should be called dubnium. Dubnium is named for the Russian town Dubna. 

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Seaborgium is a radioactive metal that does not occur naturally. Only a few atoms have ever been made. It has no known biological role. Seaborgium is a transuranium element. It is created by bombarding californium-249 with oxygen-18 nuclei. At present, it is only used in research. In 1970, a team led by Albert Ghiorso at the Californian Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) bombarded californium with oxygen and was successful in producing element 106, isotope 263. In September 1974, a team led by Ghiorso at LBNL produced isotope 263, with a half-life of 0.8 seconds, by bombarding californium with oxygen. Seaborgium is named for Glenn T Seaborg, who was instrumental in producing several transuranium elements. 

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Bohrium is a highly radioactive metal. It has no known biological role. Bohrium does not occur naturally and only a few atoms have ever been made. It will probably never be isolated in observable quantities. It was created by the so-called ‘cold fusion’ method. This involved the bombardment of bismuth with atoms of chromium. At present, bohrium is of research interest only. Bohrium is named in honour of the Danish atomic physicist Niels Bohr.

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Hassium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. Hassium has no known biological role. It does not occur naturally and it will probably never be isolated in observable quantities. It is created by bombarding lead with iron atoms. At present it is only used in research. The name is derived from the German state of Hesse where Hassium was first made. 

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Darmstadtium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. Darmstadtium has no known biological role. It is formed by fusing nickel and lead atoms in a heavy ion accelerator. At present, it is only used in research. There are 15 known isotopes of darmstadtium, isotopes 267-281, and the heaviest is the longest-lived, with a half-life of 4 minutes. Darmstadtium is named after Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first produced. 

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Roentgenium is a highly radioactive metal. Roentgenium has no known biological role. It is a man-made element of which only a few atoms have ever been created. It is made by fusing nickel and bismuth atoms in a heavy ion accelerator. At present, it is only used in research. There are seven known isotopes of the element: 272, 274 and 278-282. The longest lived is isotope 281 which has a half-life of 22.8 seconds. Roentgenium is named after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, the discoverer of x-rays.

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Copernicium is a highly radioactive metal. It is thought to be unreactive and more like a noble gas than a metal. It has no known biological role. Copernicium is a man-made element of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It is formed by fusing lead and zinc atoms in a heavy ion accelerator. At present, it is only used in research. Although copernicium was only recently ‘discovered’, it is named after Nicolaus Copernicus, an influential 16th century astronomer. 

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Nihonium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It has no known biological role. At present, it is only used in research. Officially discovered in 2004, Nihonium was reported to have been created by a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN. The RIKEN team suggested the name nihonium in March 2016, approved and made official in November 2016. The name comes from the common Japanese name for Japan.

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Flerovium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It has no known biological role. Flerovium can be formed in nuclear reactors. At present, it is only used in research. Despite several attempts to make element 114, it was only in 1998 that a team led by Yuri Oganessian and Vladimir Utyonkov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Russia produced it by bombarding plutonium with calcium. It needed 5 billion billion (5 x 1018) atoms of calcium to be fired at the target to produce a single atom of flerovium, in an experiment lasting 40 days. It is named after the Russian physicist Georgy Flerov who founded the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research where the element was discovered. 

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Livermorium is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It has no known biological role. Livermorium does not occur naturally. It is made by bombarding curium atoms with calcium. The most stable isotope has a half-life of about 53 milliseconds. At present, it is only used in research. Because the discovery was made using essential target material supplied by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in the USA, it was decided to name it after that facility.

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Tennessine is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It has no known biological role. At present, it is only used in research. It was discovered in 2010 by scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California USA, and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA. The name refers to the US state of Tennessee.

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Oganesson is a highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. At present, it is only used in research. It has no known biological role. Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA. The name recognises the Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian for his contributions to transactinide element research. 

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Lanthanum is a soft, silvery-white metal. It rapidly tarnishes in air and burns easily when ignited. Lanthanum is found in ‘rare earth’ minerals, principally monazite (25% lanthanum) and bastnaesite (38% lanthanum). It has no known biological role. Both the element and its compounds are moderately toxic. Lanthanum metal has no commercial uses, however, its alloys have a variety of uses. A lanthanum-nickel alloy is used to store hydrogen gas for use in hydrogen-powered vehicles. It is also found in the anode of nickel metal hydride batteries used in hybrid cars. The best-known use for this alloy is in ‘flints’ for cigarette lighters. Lanthanum salts are used in catalysts for petroleum refining. The ion La3+ is used as a biological tracer for Ca2+, and radioactive lanthanum has been tested for use in treating cancer.

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Praseodymium is a soft, silvery metal. Praseodymium occurs along with other lanthanide elements in a variety of minerals. The two principal sources are monazite and bastnaesite. It is extracted from these minerals by ion exchange and solvent extraction. It has no known biological role. Praseodymium is used in a variety of alloys. The high-strength alloy it forms with magnesium is used in aircraft engines. Praseodymium is also used in alloys for permanent magnets. Along with other lanthanide elements, it is used in carbon arc electrodes for studio lighting and projection.

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Neodymium is a silvery-white metal. It rapidly tarnishes in air. Neodymium has no known biological role. It is moderately toxic and irritating to eyes. The main sources of most lanthanide elements are the minerals monazite and bastnaesite. Neodymium can be extracted from these minerals by ion exchange and solvent extraction. The element can also be obtained by reducing anhydrous neodymium chloride or fluoride with calcium. The most important use for neodymium is in an alloy with iron and boron to make very strong permanent magnets. This discovery in 1983 made it possible to miniaturise many electronic devices, including mobile phones, microphones, loudspeakers and electronic musical instruments.

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Samarium is a silvery-white metal. It has no known biological role. Samarium is found along with other lanthanide metals in several minerals, the principal ones being monazite and bastnaesite. It is separated from the other components of the mineral by ion exchange and solvent extraction. Samarium-cobalt magnets are much more powerful than iron magnets. They remain magnetic at high temperatures and are used in microwave applications. They enabled the miniaturisation of electronic devices like headphones and the development of personal stereos. However, neodymium magnets are now more commonly used instead.

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Europium is a soft, silvery metal that tarnishes quickly and reacts with water. In common with other lanthanides, europium is mainly found in the minerals monazite and bastnaesite. It can be prepared from these minerals. However, the usual method of preparation is by heating europium(Ill) oxide with an excess of lanthanum under vacuum. Europium has no known biological role. Europium is used in the printing of euro banknotes. It glows red under UV light, and forgeries can be detected by the lack of this red glow. Low-energy light bulbs contain a little europium to give a more natural light, by balancing the blue (cold) light with a little red (warm) light. Europium is excellent at absorbing neutrons, making it valuable in control rods for nuclear reactors. Europium-doped plastic has been used as a laser material. It is also used in making thin super-conducting alloys.

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Terbium is a soft, silvery metal. It has no known biological role. Terbium can be recovered from the minerals monazite and bastnaesite by ion exchange and solvent extraction. It is also obtained from euxenite, a complex oxide containing 1% or more of terbium. The metal is usually produced commercially by reducing the anhydrous fluoride or chloride with calcium metal, under a vacuum. It is also possible to produce the metal by the electrolysis of terbium oxide in molten calcium chloride. It is also used in low-energy lightbulbs and mercury lamps. It has been used to improve the safety of medical x-rays by allowing the same quality image to be produced with a much shorter exposure time.

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Dysprosium is a bright, silvery metallic element. It has no known biological role. In common with many other lanthanides, dysprosium is found in the minerals monazite and bastnaesite. It is also found in smaller quantities in several other minerals such as xenotime and fergusonite. It can be extracted from these minerals by ion exchange and solvent extraction. As a pure metal, it is little used because it reacts readily with water and air. Dysprosium’s main use is in alloys for neodymium-based magnets. This is because it is resistant to demagnetisation at high temperatures. This property is important for magnets used in motors or generators.

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Erbium is found principally in the minerals monazite and bastnaesite. It can be extracted by ion exchange and solvent extraction. Erbium has no known biological role, and has low toxicity. Erbium finds little use as a metal because it slowly tarnishes in air and is attacked by water. When alloyed with metals such as vanadium, erbium lowers their hardness and improves their workability. Erbium oxide is used in infrared absorbing glass, for example safety glasses for welders and metal workers. When erbium is added to glass it gives the glass a pink tinge. It is used to give colour to some sunglasses and imitation gemstones. Broadband signals, carried by fibre optic cables, are amplified by including erbium in the glass fibre. It is also used as a porcelain enamel glaze to create pink glazes.

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Ytterbium is a soft, silvery metal. It slowly oxidises in air, forming a protective surface layer. It has no known biological role and low toxicity. In common with many lanthanide elements, ytterbium is found principally in the mineral monazite. It can be extracted by ion exchange and solvent extraction. Ytterbium is beginning to find a variety of uses, such as in memory devices and tuneable lasers. It can also be used as an industrial catalyst and is increasingly being used to replace other catalysts considered to be too toxic and polluting.

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Protactinium is a silvery, radioactive metal. Small amounts of protactinium are found naturally in uranium ores. It is also found in spent fuel rods from nuclear reactors, from which it is extracted. Protactinium has no known biological role. It is toxic due to its radioactivity. Protactinium is little used outside of research.

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Neptunium is a radioactive metal. Neptunium has no known biological role. It is toxic due to its radioactivity. Neptunium is obtained as a by-product from nuclear reactors. It is extracted from the spent uranium fuel rods. Trace quantities occur naturally in uranium ores. Neptunium is little used outside research. The isotope neptunium-237 has been used in neutron detectors. Neptunium was first made in 1940 by Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley, California. It came from a uranium target that had been bombarded with slow neutrons and which then emitted unusual beta-rays indicating a new isotope. Abelson proved there was indeed a new element present.

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Fermium is a radioactive metal obtained only in microgram quantities. Fermium has no known biological role. It is toxic due to its radioactivity. Fermium can be obtained, in microgram quantities, from the neutron bombardment of plutonium in a nuclear reactor. Fermium was discovered in 1953 in the debris of the first thermonuclear explosion which took place on a Pacific atoll on 1 November 1952. Fermium is named after the nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi. 

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Mendelevium is a radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been created. Mendelevium is used only for research. Mendelevium has no known biological role. Mendelevium does not occur naturally. It is made by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles (helium ions). Seventeen atoms of mendelevium were made in 1955 by Albert Ghiorso, Bernard Harvey, Gregory Chopin, Stanley Thompson, and Glenn Seaborg. They were produced during an all-night experiment using the cyclotron at Berkeley, California. Further experiments yielded several thousand atoms of mendelevium and today it is possible to produce millions of them. The longest lived isotope is mendelevium-260 which has a half-life of 28 days. Mendelevium is named for Dmitri Mendeleev who produced one of the first periodic tables. 

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Lawrencium is a radioactive metal of which only a few atoms have ever been created. Lawrencium has no known biological role. Lawrencium does not occur naturally. It is produced by bombarding californium with boron. Lawrencium has no uses outside research. The element is named after Ernest Lawrence, who invented the cyclotron particle accelerator. This was designed to accelerate sub-atomic particles around a circle until they have enough energy to smash into an atom and create a new atom.